GLOSSARY
There are a lot of terms and theories in this project that are difficult to understand. So we made a quick glossary to reference back to as well as some infographics to help explain dating methods. To quickly find a word: press ctrl-F and type in the word.
DATING METHODS
With such profound recent advancements in the field of dating methods, modern archaeologists can employ a vast variety of dating methods to accurately determine the age of materials, remains and artifacts recovered from sites. Archaeological dating methods are split into two types: relative and absolute methods. These two types of dating methods refer to the type of date they may provide a piece of material. Relative dating methods do not offer an exact date for an artifact or piece of material, rather, they can help us understand if a specific piece came before or after another. For example, you may have an assemblage of clay pots from one region or site and can create a sequence that tracks the earliest known pot to the most recent pot, therefore giving insight into the pot’s age based on which pots it came before and which pots it came after. Although this method can be extremely helpful in some cases, it does not give insight into how long each stage or period was or how long each phase took to morph into a new phase. On the other hand, absolute dating methods provide an exact date (an absolute date) in years for the piece of material being examined. Not only can absolute dating methods be effective for cultural materials, but they can also aid archaeologists in dating population events for both human and non-human species. Often, absolute dating methods do not give one exact calendar year age for an artifact (i.e., 20,957 years old), instead they offer a date range with a specific plus or minus window. For example, an artifact may be dated to 20,957 years +/- 120 years; Thus, the artifact’s age may be anywhere in the range of 20,837 to 21,077 years old.
Further, it is important to understand the risks of using archaeological dating methods. Most often, these take the form of contamination risks, which are especially prevalent when using absolute dating methods. Archaeologists must do everything in their power to properly handle and clean the samples they will be dating. The contamination risks and cleaning processes vary depending on the type of material or the type of dating method being employed, but there is an overall necessity to handle these materials as delicately as possible to avoid contamination with any other samples, materials, or chemicals that could invalidate their actual age.
Lastly, one of the most fundamental principles in archaeology is that the excavation of a site is entirely destructive. Once a site has been excavated and artifacts, remains, and materials have been uncovered and moved, they will never be in their original context again. Thus, researchers need to ensure that they are documenting (with extremely accurate precision) the positioning and context of everything they excavate. This notion extends itself to the dating of archaeological material, and builds on the risk of contamination, in that researchers must ensure they are collecting substantial samples of the material they want to date, as they will only be able to take a certain sample from its original context once. For relative dating methods, specifically stratigraphy and fluorine dating, it is imperative to ensure the context of the material or remains is accurately documented, as its physical positioning may be the only method of dating available. Often, researchers will use more than one dating method when possible to ensure the accuracy of the dates.
Further, it is important to understand the risks of using archaeological dating methods. Most often, these take the form of contamination risks, which are especially prevalent when using absolute dating methods. Archaeologists must do everything in their power to properly handle and clean the samples they will be dating. The contamination risks and cleaning processes vary depending on the type of material or the type of dating method being employed, but there is an overall necessity to handle these materials as delicately as possible to avoid contamination with any other samples, materials, or chemicals that could invalidate their actual age.
Lastly, one of the most fundamental principles in archaeology is that the excavation of a site is entirely destructive. Once a site has been excavated and artifacts, remains, and materials have been uncovered and moved, they will never be in their original context again. Thus, researchers need to ensure that they are documenting (with extremely accurate precision) the positioning and context of everything they excavate. This notion extends itself to the dating of archaeological material, and builds on the risk of contamination, in that researchers must ensure they are collecting substantial samples of the material they want to date, as they will only be able to take a certain sample from its original context once. For relative dating methods, specifically stratigraphy and fluorine dating, it is imperative to ensure the context of the material or remains is accurately documented, as its physical positioning may be the only method of dating available. Often, researchers will use more than one dating method when possible to ensure the accuracy of the dates.
RELATIVE DATING METHODS
Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is one of the oldest forms of archaeological dating and continues to be one of the most widely used methods. Stratigraphy is a branch of geology that studies the formation of layers of rocks and sediments, which are known as strata. Primarily, stratigraphy utilizes the law of superposition, one of Steno's Four Laws. The law of superposition states that the oldest material or sediment deposits are below newer deposits. Therefore, the oldest materials will be found at the lowest point in the sequence, and the newest materials will be deposited at the highest point in the sequence. Using this principle, archaeologists can create chronological sequences of strata and, consequently, the archaeological materials or remains that are found within them. As stratigraphy is a relative dating method, it does not determine the amount of time that lapses between each layer. Yet, using an absolute dating method on even one piece of material or remains found within the layers can give absolute dates to individual layers and all the materials within them due to the concepts of association and context. Seriation The dating method of seriation can be used on any type of artifact or cultural materials as it looks at assemblages as a whole and orders the individual pieces in chronological order. Seriation has primary two methods within the tradition, context seriation and frequency seriation. Context seriation specifically looks at the presence or absence of a trait, attribute or overall style. On the other hand, frequency seriation measures the frequency of a certain trait being present over time. Fluorine Dating Fluorine dating is specifically used for the relative dating of bone. If remains are exposed to groundwater that contains fluoride when buried, the bone mineral calcium hydroxyapatite will absorb these fluoride ions. Then, the fluoride replaces the hydroxyapatite ions, forming fluorapatite. As bones accumulate fluorapatite over time, those with a greater overall fluoride content are proven to be older than those with a lower fluoride content. When using fluorine dating, it is vital to ensure specimens are only being compared with specimens from the same geographical location as fluoride levels in groundwater vary. Comparing specimens that have been exposed to different fluoride levels, would disrupt the sequences, as the bones themselves will be contaminated at different rates. |
Typology
The dating method of typology works off the basis of arranging artifacts or materials into groups based on their physical attributes and characteristics. These groups of artifacts or materials arranged by their attributes are known as types, thus the name typology. The method of typology works based on two main principles. Firstly, the notion that the attributes of artifacts and materials are characteristic of a period of time or a culture or group. This allows researchers to associate an artifact or material with a certain time or culture simply based on its physical appearance. Secondly, typology assumes that artifact types go through gradual change over time. Based on this assumption, artifacts can be arranged under the “like goes with like” notion, therefore giving an artifact a relative date. Overall, materials or artifacts can be given a relative date as to their origin, based on the prior knowledge of the type of artifact and its positioning in its typological sequence. Pollen Dating Pollen dating analyzes the amounts and types of pollen in stratigraphic sequences. Through this analysis, researchers can identify a variety of factors based on the knowledge of what conditions are needed and when individual plants pollinate. Based on these factors, the climatic conditions of a region can be determined during the time period of the strata being deposited. Climatic changes can be seen over time as the types of pollen being released change, indicating new sets of conditions that will allow for different types of plants to survive and pollinate. Overall, these pollen supplies found in different strata can help researchers conduct dietary reconstructions of past populations, and determine what materials they were using for building and creating artifacts, along with other facets of past life. It is important to note that when using pollen dating as a dating method, it must be considered that pollen can easily travel by wind. Thus, the samples found in certain strata may have been deposited prior to or proceeding the occupation of a site and thus have no connection to the climatic changes or uses of the site. Deep Sea or Ice Cores Deep sea and ice cores are incredibly useful dating methods that give a record of climatic changes which can then be used to create a relative sequence. Deep sea cores contain sequences of layers of sediments and materials annually deposited on the sea floor through the process of sedimentation. Within these layers, large quantities of the shells of a small microscopic marine organism, called foraminifera, are among the deposits. The chemical makeup of these shells gives indicators regarding the temperature of the seawater during the time they were alive. Therefore, as these shells are deposited in the annual strata into an overall sequence, they can give clear indications of the climatic conditions of the region over time based on the temperatures of the seawater. Other absolute dating methods can be used on the shells to give an absolute date to their layers, which can create sequences in calendar years. Currently, the deep sea core sequence stretches back 2.3 million years. Likewise, ice cores are recovered from the ice in the Arctic and Antarctica. They too have distinguishable, annual depositional layers of ice. Within these layers, major volcanic eruptions can sometimes be recorded, but it is possible that the episode's record may not be a result of the exact historical event it is assumed to be. At present, there is a 2,000-3,000 year sequence of ice layers. |
ABSOLUTE DATING METHODS
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RADICARBON DATINGRadiocarbon dating is an absolute dating method that can be used on organic materials aged 500 to 50,000 years old. Within Earth's atmosphere, there is a constant production of high-energy neutrons. When these neutrons react with nitrogen atoms, they produce an unstable carbon isotope, 14C or radiocarbon. Due to the extreme instability of these isotopes, they consistently decay at the accurate pace of 5,730 years, which is known as the half-life of radiocarbon. All living organisms on our planet, including humans, work together in the process of maintaining 14C levels through plants photosynthesizing, and animals consuming plants and each other. Through this reuptake of 14C, the active decay of other 14C atoms are balanced. Thus, living organisms always have a constant and consistent ratio of 14C within them. However when an organism dies, the reuptake of 14C into its system is immediately halted, and the process of 14C decay begins. By measuring the amount of 14C left in a sample of organic material, researchers can determine how long the 14C has been decaying and, therefore, how old the material is.
Accelerated Mass Spectronomy is a technique that is used in radiocarbon dating. Instead of counting the amount of radioactivity from the decay of 14C, this technique counts the amount of 14C atoms present. This method has the advantage of requiring a smaller sample than traditional radiocarbon dating, and is therefore available to more materials and specimens. |
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LUMINESENCE DATINGThermoluminescence dates crystalline materials that have been previously fired (ex. pottery) and are between 100 to 500,000 years old. Specifically, the materials must be heated to 450 to 500 degrees Celsius. When a piece of material is heated, it releases all energy from ions that have been collected within the raw materials. This is sometimes referred to as resetting the radioactive signal (or clock), which only happens when the material reaches a temperature higher than 450 to 500 degrees Celsius. After these artifacts are buried, the minerals of the material begin to, once again, accumulate radiation from the naturally occurring radioisotopes and sometimes even the soil it is buried in. Assuming the amount of radiation accumulating in an artifact stays constant over time, when a sample of an artifact is reheated to the same height temperature of 450 to 500 degrees Celsius, the radiation trapped with it will be released. Researchers can measure the amount of radiation that is released from the sample, and based on the rate of radiation accumulation, they can calculate how long it has been since the object was originally fired, and therefore how old the object is. The biggest concern with using thermoluminescence dating is the lack of precision. Often, it is difficult to get within +/- 10% of the age of the sample.
Optically stimulated luminescence dating is very similar to thermoluminescence dating, in that it measures trapped electrons from within a sample. Instead of measuring heat, OSL dates minerals by measuring the amount of trapped energy that has accumulated within a sample since it has last been exposed to the sun. Thus, OSL is often used on materials that would be destroyed if they were exposed to the extreme heat (firing) necessary to enable the use of TL dating. Minerals are constantly releasing the energy they accumulate when exposed to sunlight, but once an artifact is buried, that process is halted and the energy is forced to continue building up within the mineral as it absorbs radiation from the soil. When an artifact is uncovered, it can be taken to a lab and deliberately have light directed at it. As this happens, the material will release all the radiation it has built up. Researchers can measure the amount of radiation released and, with investigation into the background radiation of the soil, they can calculate how long the artifact has been buried. |
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URANIUM-SERIES DATINGUranium series dating is capable of dating carbonates, most often rocks, 50,000 to 500,000 years old. The uranium series technique analyzes two uranium decay chains and their ‘daughter’ isotopes. Materials that contain the two ‘parent’ isotopes, U-238 (238U) and U-235 (235U), will decay into the radioisotopes, thorium-230 (230Th, daughter of 238U) and protactinium-231 (231Pa, daughter of 235U). Like thermoluminescence and optically stimulated luminescence dating, the materials that are being dated must undergo the process of resetting the radioactive clock to zero. This zeroing process is triggered when calcite is produced by the carbonates present within a solution. Therefore, when calcium is present on rocks, the uranium isotopes dissolved in a body of water will be met with, and dissolve the calcium carbonate. Thus, this method is most effective on limestone caves that have had ground or ocean water seep in, which would cause the formation of layers of calcium carbonate. These layers of calcium carbonate are known as travertine, which contains the parent isotopes of uranium but will begin to decay into their two daughter isotopes. The age of these layers of travertine can be calculated based on a calculation of the ratio of present parent isotopes to daughter isotopes, indicating how long the parent isotope has had to decay. Within these caves, bones or other artifacts are often found encrusted in layers of this calcium carbonate, making them susceptible to being dated using this method due to the principles of association
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DENDROCHRONOLOGYDendrochronology is an absolute dating method that studies the annually differentiating sizes of tree rings, with which chronological sequences can be made. Most trees produce a new ring annually, these rings are incredibly variable on the climatic conditions of the region during that specific time period, and get narrower as they age. Arid regions with an above average rain year generally result in a thicker ring. Opposingly, in temperate regions, sunlight levels and overall temperature hold more control over the rings. In these regions, cold spells often result in a smaller ring. In specific regions around the world (ex. the American Southwest), annual chronologies can be traced back for thousands of years.
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FISSION TRACK DATING |
POTASSIUM-ARGON DATING |
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Fission track dating is used on rocks, minerals, and glasses (ex. volcanic glass) over 100,000 years old. Materials younger than this may be dated using this method, but they often have so few tracks that it is incredibly difficult to date, lowering the accuracy of the date provided. The radioactive uranium atoms (238U) have a known rate of fission, referring to the spontaneous fission of the atom into fission tracks. When a mineral or glass is formed, either naturally or manufactured, it has no fission tracks. Therefore, materials can be dated by the amount of fission tracks they have, which are analyzed under a microscope, in relation to the spontaneous fission rate of 238U.
HISTORICAL CHRONOLOGIESReconstructing the various methods of written documentation and calendars from ancient societies was the first dating method in the field and continues to be of great importance to current archaeologists. Many ancient societies had some form of literacy and subsequently left written records of their histories and timelines. Often, timelines of leaders and major events in historical societies are traced through the documentation of their leaders or kings. For example, the Egyptians traced their timelines through the chronological series of their pharaohs which has given us the exact dates for their 31 dynasties. Additionally, sometimes societies have left behind physical artifacts that have dates or major events inscribed on them. By discovering and deciphering these ancient forms of documentation, researchers can often create complete timelines of the events (and sometimes even aspects like the climate) of a region. In some cases, these timelines can even be cross-dated to other surrounding regions.
ARCHAEOMAGNETIC/PALEOMAGNETIC DATINGArchaeomagnetic dating works off the principle that the earth's magnetic field is constantly changing. The magnetic field is continually changing in intensity and direction, and has been forever. When a clay artifact is heated to above 650 - 700 degrees celsius to be baked (fired), the principle of ‘thermoremanent magnetism’ (TRM) is activated and it records the earth's magnetic position at that exact moment. The particles within the clay take on the earth's position and intensity upon being heated and are permanently positioned in this pattern, even when the earth's magnetic field changes over time. By using charted sequences of the past positioning and intensity of the earth’s magnetic fields, researchers can match the positioning of the particles of clay from an artifact to the sequence, which correlates with an absolute calendar date. When using this dating method for materials from the Lower Paleolithic, it is important to remember the phenomenon of geomagnetic reversal. This is important to account for specifically when dating Lower Paleolithic materials, as the most recent geomagnetic reversal happened roughly 780,000 years ago, therefore right in the middle of the Lower Paleolithic.
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Potassium-argon dating is a dating method used on sites that have been buried by volcanic rock and is a method capable of dating rocks and minerals that are millions of years old. For K-Ar dating to work, the sample must be at least 100,000 years old. Like radiocarbon dating, K-Ar dating utilizes the principle of an element's half-life; Measuring the slow decay of the radioactive isotope potassium-40 (40K) into the inert gas, argon (40Ar). The half-life of 40K is roughly 1.3 billion years, which allows the method to be used on such particularly aged materials. To get an absolute date, the amount of 40Ar that is trapped within a sample is measured, thus measuring how long the sample's original 40K has had to decay and presenting an approximate date of formation.
ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE (ESR)Like thermoluminescence dating, electron spin resonance utilizes the trapped electrons in a specimen. ESR has vast applicability for materials that can be dated, such as minerals, biological materials (bone), pottery, and other organic materials, from 60,000 to 2,000,000 years old. In archaeology, ESR is most often used to date tooth enamel, meaning it can date sets of remains. ESR employs the measurement of radiation that has seeped into a sample, as a result of destruction to its anatomic structure. Decaying isotopes in the ground where a specimen has been buried, in accumulation with cosmic radiation, cause damage to the atomic structure of multiple elements. This results in the creation of unpaired electrons, which continue to form over time as this radiation continues to damage the atoms. Over time, the unpaired electrons will continue to form in a ratio proportionate to the amount of radiation the specimen is being exposed to. Therefore, researchers can calculate the amount of unpaired electrons that have been accumulated within the specimen to give it an absolute date. This method is specifically used to date tooth enamel so frequently because there is no radiation in new tooth enamel, making the dates some of the most accurate from this method. Overall, this method is usually only within 10-20% precision, meaning it is most effective when being used in conjunction with another dating method.
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Glossary
AaDNA: Ancient DNA may be used to analyze the origin of mankind, ancient diseases and how they affected ancient people and/or present populations, settlement patterns, and the reconstruction of phenotypic traits. Can be found in soil
Absolute Dating: Technique used to assign specific dates or ranges to artifacts or other finds. The techniques used for dating vary, including chemical analyses (radiocarbon dating), data correlation (dendrochronology) and others. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS): A form of mass spectrometry, in which a scientist accelerates ions in a machine, where rare isotopes can be separated from a larger mass before analysis, allowing precise and accurate readings. Acheulean Industry: An old and extremely long-lived form of stone tools, used first by Homo erectus. Characterized by large, rounded stone blades. Estimated to be used from 1.5 mya to .11 mya. Aeolian Deposit: Deposition of sediments by wind. Archaeological sites may be buried or preserved by aeolian deposits. Alluvial deposit: A soil deposit created by running water (e.g. Streams, rivers, flooding) Anthropology: The study of human beings, including their behaviour, biology, and culture. There are various subcultures of anthropology including cultural, physical, and biological. Antiquity: A period before the Middle Ages, the past. Archaeology: The scientific excavation and study of ancient materials and their remains. Aerial Photography: Capturing images of the Earth's surface using airborne platforms for archaeological analysis. Useful for identifying features that are invisible on ground level. Aerial reconnaissance/survey: A non-destructive method of survey, where a plane equipped with cameras is flown over a known or unknown site to record, monitor, or interpret sites Artifact: An object made, modified or used by humans. Assemblage: A group or collection of artifacts found in the same context Association: Referring to artifacts or materials found next to or close to one another in their archaeological context BBalk: An unexcavated barrier of land between excavation units that exists for structural support and stratigraphic analysis.
B.C.: The abbreviation for ‘Before Christ’ is used to identify a year in terms of counting backwards from the recognized year of Christ's birth. Biface: A stone tool that has been worked on both faces (sides). Specifically, they have been flaked (chipped) off through cultural modification Biological Anthropology: The study of the biological evolution of humans and their extinct ancestors. Bipedal: Walking on two lower limbs B.P.: The abbreviation for “Before Present’ is used to identify a year in terms of counting backwards from 1950 as the reference Bulb of Percussion: A bulb-like bulge on a flake which is formed at the point of impact when removing a flake from a core during tool production. Usually indicates human involvement in the production of the flake. CCarbon Dating: The scientific method of determining the age of organic materials based on the decay of the carbon-14 isotope up to 60,000 years.
Carry Capacity: The maximum population size that an environment can sustainably support Cartesian Coordinate System: A system for specifying each point in space by a set of numerical coordinates on a perpendicular axis, useful for mapping and recording archaeological sites Chert: Chert is a broad term that is used to refer to any sedimentary rocks primarily of microcrystalline quartz Chromatography: A laboratory technique used to separate and analyze mixtures, such as residues on artifacts Chronometric dating methods: Chromometric dating methods are capable of giving a date range of an artifact or remains in a range of years (ex. 14,583 kya +/- 100 years). These methods include radiocarbon dating, thermoluminescence dating, potassium-argon dating, and fission track dating. Classification: The ordering of phenomena into some type of group or scheme based on their attributes Clovis Point: fluted points associated with Clovis culture, which were used for projectiles for hunting. Cluster Analysis: A data analysis technique that evaluates the similarities between individual units in a cluster (assemblage) of artifacts; can be based on the occurrence or non-occurrence of a trait Cognitive Archaeology: The study of past societies and cultures through the examination of material remains to understand their cognitive processes, beliefs, and behaviours Colluvial deposit: Colluvial materials are deposited predominantly as a result of gravity. For example, you may find a colluvial deposit at the bottom of a mountain as a result of gravitational forces. Coprolites: Ancient feces; can be used to reconstruct past human and animal diets and subsistence practices Context: The position in which archaeological material is located and its position in relation to other materials or remains found in the same area or site; context is broken into primary and secondary context (see definitions) Core: A large piece of stone from which flakes are removed in the process of lithic creation. This large piece of stone, the core, and the flakes that are removed from it can both be used to create tools. Cortex: The outer layer of a stone tool Culture: A people's way of life, consisting of traditions, materials, religions, social structure, and languages. Cultural Modification: Modification to an organic or inorganic material as a result of human acts Cultural Resource Management: A non-academic field of archaeology that works to safeguard sites and materials. Cultural resource management works to avoid any damage to sites as a result of construction, natural disasters, etc. DDatum point: A fixed location that is specified during fieldwork and data collection to calibrate the positioning of materials as they are excavated. Generally found in the southeast corner of a site map or plot
Deduction: Also referred to as ‘top-down reasoning’ and is a method of reasoning that works from the broadest information to a narrow hypothesis (ex. thinking about a theory about a topic and then creating a hypothesis) Debitage (lithic debitage): The small pieces of stone that are broken off during the process of making a stone tool; generally discarded material Demography: Attempting to understand the structure and dynamics of past populations Dendrochronology: An absolute dating method using the study of tree ring patterns Deposit: a concentration of artifacts or remains within an archaeological context, serving as a valuable source of information for understanding past human behaviours and cultural practices. Diffusion: Transmission of cultural items such as technologies from one group to another, useful for explaining the existence of similar elements in different contexts. DNA: Deoxyribose nucleic acid, found in the nucleus of the cell and contains the genetic code that is unique to every individual. In archaeology, human DNA is most often used to interpret population changes (ex. replacement of one group by another in a specific region) but may also be used for other analysis or interpretation. |
EEcofact: Any archaeological find that is of significance but is not manufactured by humans; ex. Bone or plant remains that may indicate past diets
Electrical Resistivity: A non-invasive survey method that x-rays the ground to find irregularities in the matrix that are different than the naturally occurring sediment. Eoliths: Once thought to be the earliest form of stone tools, is nowadays thought to be a naturally occurring stone. Evolution: The slow process of organisms developing and changing through adaptations from earlier common ancestors to diversify into various species. Excavation: The process of removing rocks, soil and other materials to uncover artifacts or sites. FFauna: The animal life within a specific area, examined alongside human culture, behaviour, and adaptation. It encompasses the study of animals, their interactions with humans, and the broader ecological context
Feature: A large artifact that represents a specific past activity; for example, a hearth, a shelter or walls, a rock pit or alignment Flake: A flake refers to the pieces of material removed from a core when making a lithic; flakes may be discarded or used as a tool themselves both modified or unmodified Flora: Plant remains; for example, pollen, soil, flowers, pine needles, etc. Flotation: A recovery method that employs the use of (sterile) water and mesh screens to separate small artifacts, fauna, flora, minerals, and other remains from soil samples. Formation processes: Any event or situation that results in the transformation of an archaeological site; these processes can be natural, environmental factors, or cultural, as a result of human activity Frequency Seriation: A relative dating method that arranges large assemblages of the same type of artifact into chronological sequences in relation to their type or attributes GGene: The basic unit of heredity, which is inherited from both parents to the offspring and demonstrates itself as a characteristic of the offspring (for example: eye colour).
Gene Flow: The movement or transfer of genetic material (genes) from one population to another. Geoarchaeology: Uses methods and techniques of geography to examine archeological thought or knowledge Geomorphology: Regarding the study of landforms and the study of there creation Grid: The method of dividing an archaeological site into a grid of small squares for excavation Ground Reconnaissance: Non-invasive examination of an archaeological site from a ground level through visual inspection. HHalf-Life: the time for a unstable elements to radioactively decay. The half-life of carbon-14 is about 5,730 years.
Hearth: Any type of fire pit or fireplace Homo Sapien: Modern humans, the most prevalent and widely distributed primate species. They are the sole surviving members of the Homo genus. Hoard: In archaeology, a hoard refers to a collection of materials and/or artifacts that have been buried, sometimes on purpose and other times no IIndigenous Archaeology: A sub-discipline of archaeology that works to engage with Indigenous communities and intersect with their beliefs, traditions, and practices to ensure respectful and ethical research and data collection
LLiDAR: Stands for Light Detection and Ranging. It is a form of laser scanner to view the ground under foliage and other ground covers. Useful to find ruins and sites normally hidden under forests and in jungles.
Lithic: Stone tools, lithic analysis refers to analyzing these tools to understand what their use may have been and the materials they were used on Loess sediments: Recent, unstratified sediments mainly comprised of silt and clay; generally, an aeolian deposit MMaterial culture: Physical aspects of culture that have been produced or modified by humans
Matrix: The physical material (ex. Soil, clay, mud) in which artifacts are embedded or supported Megaliths: Large stones used in the construction of prehistoric monuments. Microlith: A very small stone tool, typically 1-1.5cm in length, used on spear and arrowhead points in Asia, Europe, Africa, and Australia from 30,000-3,000 years ago. Midden: An ancient trash pile that can give researchers great insight into the subsistence strategies or overall domestic habits of ancient societies and groups. Sometimes they are specifically labelled as a ‘shell midden’ and are comprised of shellfish remains and in close proximity to a shoreline. Miocene: Epoch from 23..3 mya to 5.33 mya in which global climates cooled to the temperatures of modern times, as well as shifting of landmasses to present-day conditions. Morphology: The study of the physical shapes of artifacts mtDNA: Mitochondrial DNA. Used to trace DNA on the mother’s side of the family. It is passed down to both males and females and is unchanged through generations. NNatural Modification: Modificant to remains, artifacts or ecofacts as a result of natural forces. For example, rodent gnawing marks on a bison bone.
Net Migration: The difference between the number of people entering and the number of people leaving an area, expressed as a number. Neolithic: The final stage in the development of prehistoric humans. The beginning of dependency on agriculture, settlements in villages, developing cultures and makings of pottery and weaving. Neolithic Revolution: The very beginning of the transition of humankind from hunter-gatherers to an organized society, through the invention and practice of agriculture. Non-Material Culture: Any non-physical part of a society. These can include religions, ideas, beliefs, cultures, etc. Non-Probablistic Sampling: Selecting specific individuals from a population based on predetermined criteria. It does not ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. Number of Identified Specimens (NISP): The total number of distinct individuals remains in a specific location. |
OObsidian: A volcanic glass, a common tool material
Oldowan Industry: An early, primitive form of stone tool making, where a few flakes were chipped off of a stone, and made into a crude edge. Used from roughly 2 mya to 1.2 mya by Homo habilis. Osteology: The study of bones. Organic: Living organisms of all types, including plants, moss and lichen, bacteria, and animals. PPaleoanthropology: A sub-discipline of both anthropology and paleontology that studies human evolution through the analysis of the fossil and archaeological records
Paleomagnetism: The study of the Earth's magnetic field as preserved in rocks and sediments, useful for dating and paleogeographic reconstructions Phytoliths: Silica particles found in plants which are often preserved in sediments, useful for identifying plants and reconstructing past vegetation. Pre-Clovis: This refers to a time period before the usage of North American Clovis points, dating to approximately 13,050 BP or older. Prehistory: The period of human history prior to the advent of writing Primary Context: The original context of an artifact, set of remains, or any other type of archaeological material. If the material has been moved by any force, it is considered to be in its secondary context Projectile point: A stone tool designed for attachment to a projectile, such as an arrowhead. Provenience: The specific location of an artifact within an archaeological site, expressed three-dimensionally. RRadioactive Decay: The release of energy through radiation. This process is measured through half-lives, where each “half-life” is measured in the time it takes for a specific element to decay by half.
Radiocarbon dating: A method used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon-14 isotopes. This technique provides accurate dates for materials approximately 60,000 years old. Radiometric dating: A dating method based on the analysis of the rate of decay of radioactive isotopes Refitting: The process of reassembling debitage and flakes to a core of a lithic to help understand the exact process of making a lithic Relative dating: Determining the age of artifacts, fossils, or archaeological sites by comparing them to other objects or layers in the same stratigraphic sequence. It doesn't provide exact dates but establishes an estimated chronological timeline. SSecondary Context: When the context of an artifact has been altered by a site transformation process after being originally deposited into its primary context
Sediments: The layers of deposited material such as soil or organic material that accumulate over time in archeological sites. Seriation: A method of relative dating that chronologically orders materials or artifacts of a particular type Sherd: A small fragment of pottery Simple Random Sampling: A method of statistical sampling, where the samples are chosen at random from a population where everything has the same probability of being selected. Site: A place where human cultural material is located, representing past human activity; may include human remains (in) Situ: the natural or original position of an artifact or piece of material; something is said to be “in situ” when it is found in this position SLAR (Sideways Looking Airborne Radar): Steno’s Laws of Stratigraphy: Four laws that determine how stratigraphy should be measured. They include the law of superposition, the law of original horizontality, the law of cross-cutting relationships, and the law of lateral continuity. Sterile soil: Soil that does not contain any archaeological material or human remains Strata: Layers of organic material (ex. soil, rock, mud, etc) that may or may not include any archaeological materials. These layers are studied in stratigraphy Stratified Random Sampling: A form of probabilistic sampling where zones are separated into equally sized units, then each zone has a proportional number of units sampled relative to its size Stratigraphy: involves studying the layers (strata) of soil, rock, or sediment in archaeological sites to understand the chronological sequence of events and the relative dating of artifacts and remains. Stratum: An individual layer of strata; studied in stratigraphy Subsurface Detection: An umbrella term for an array of remote sensing techniques operating at ground level; they may be invasive or non-invasive techniques Surface Survey: Surface surveys are the most common form of surveying and consists of lines of people systematically walking through an area (which may or may not be a known archaeological zone) documenting and collecting any artifacts and mapping the area Systematic Sampling: A form of probabilistic sampling that uses a grid of equally spaced locations; for example, choosing to excavate every other square on a grid. TTaphonomy: A classification system that divides animal and plant groups into categories based on evolutionary relationships
Thermoluminescence dating: An absolute dating method used on materials that have previously been heated needs to be finalized/added to Trace Element Analysis: Employing chemical techniques to determine the presence of trace elements on rocks. Tradition: In archaeology, tradition refers to continuities in the design of artifacts or other materials; this information is generally passed down through generations and can be related to a culture Typology: Systematic organization of materials and artifacts into types based on their shared physical characteristics (attributes) Topography: Refers to the study of the forms and features of the earth Total Station: A mapping device that uses electronic theodolite with an electronic distance meter that uses laser signals to determine precise locations to within about half a centimetre UUse-wear analysis: By looking at wear patterns and striations at a microscopic and macroscopic level to link a tool with a specific wear pattern
UTM Coordinates: Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates are Easting and Northing numbers based on a system of metric cells that divide the surface of the earth; these coordinates provide an incredibly precise geographical location when used accurately VVarve: A fine layer of alluvial sediments that have been deposited in glacial lakes.
ZZooarchaeology: The study of past human and animal relationships through the analysis of animal archaeological remains
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